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Studies on the potential use of Medicinal Plants

 and Macrofungi (Lower plants) in water and wastewater purification.

 

Kenneth Anchang Yongabi

FMENV/ZERI Research Centre, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University

 Pmb 0248, Bauchi, Nigeria .

Email: yongabika@yahoo.com

 

 

Abstract.

           

The study details the result of a preliminary investigation on the coagulative and disinfective ability of seeds of Moringa oleifera, Jatropha curcas seeds, calyx of Hibiscus sabdarifa, sclerotium of Pleurotus tuberregium and Alum on wastewater samples from Yelwa settlement in Bauchi, Nigeria. Varying weights (0.5 to 59) of dried pulverized plant materials and Alum were placed in 200 mls each of the three-wastewater samples and left for 24 hours.  The results showed well above 90% reduction in bacterial load of the water samples by Moringa oleifera.  All the plant materials exhibited appreciable coagulative effect comparable to Alum.  Moringa oleifera seeds, Jatropha curcas seeds and Hibiscus sabdarifa calyx reduced the bacterial load drastically and inhibited Escherichia coli in vitro using the Agar diffusion method. The turbidity of both plant  Alum treated water samples drastically reduced.  The pH of Alum treated water was observed to decrease from neutral to acidic as opposed to a constant pH of 7.0 for both plant treated and untreated wastewater samples.  This preliminary report does not only suggest an alternative and possibly cheaper water purification opportunity for rural communities in third world countries but also suggest good starting materials for the synthesis of environment friendly natural coagulant and disinfectants.

 

Key words: Coagulative, Disinfective, Total aerobic Mesophilic Counts, E. coli counts, Coliforms counts, Wastewater, Medicinal Plants, Mushroom Sclerotium.

 

 

Introduction.

           

More than half of all illnesses and deaths among children are caused by germs, which get into the mouth via water and food.  The World Health Organization has estimated that up to 80% of all disease and sickness in the World is caused by inadequate sanitation, polluted water or unavailability of water.  Approximately three out of every five persons in the developing countries do not have access to drinking water and only one in four has any kind of sanitary facility (Cheesbrough, 1984,UNICEF, 1993).  About 1.6 million people are forced to use contaminated water, this is so because most of the water sources are polluted with either industrial or domestic waste, thus unfit for use. Uncontaminated water generally does not occur naturally except for few isolated cases where the water source are readily polluted by air or ground as it comes in contact with and thus requires treatment.  Uncontaminated water is rarely obtainable in rural areas and incidentally, the prevalence of infectious disease  amongst rural dwellers, especially in Nigeria is high and mostly water borne.

 

Waterborne diseases contribute to the death of about 4 million children in the developing countries every year and the situation in Nigeria rises steadily. Access to water is a basic human necessity unavailable to hundreds of millions of the World’s poorest people.  Yet, the search for water and the effects of unsafe water and poor sanitation is an enormous burden on their daily lives especially for most rural communities in Nigeria where the situation is rather increasing, thus little prospects for development.  The impacts are particularly severe on children and women.  UNICEF’s efforts for 40 years has helped in providing safe drinking water and improved sanitation for a number of needy communities but the trend still remains high and thus calls for a multifaceted approach.  In 1990, the World Summit for children set aside one of their key goals which was universal access to drinking water and was endorsed by the Earth Submit and specified in Agenda 21.

           

            Poor people in rural and marginal urban areas pay a disproportionate share of their meager incomes for water service that is irregular, inconvenient and often suspicious in quality.  The daily chore of collecting water is a huge burden on millions of lives, usually women and girls. Reducing the time women spend hunting for water around would bring direct major benefits to their lives including self – improvement and improved child care. In Bauchi, Nigeria, clean water is a rare gem and particularly in the dry season, wells dry up and people go around hunting for water. If people are able to recover wastewater easily then the benefits to these people will be enormous. The lack of universal access to health, education and water services for the World’s poorest people is a big obstacle the global targets for sustainable development set by the Earth’s Summit through Agenda 21.  UNICEF reported that in the 1980s ,some $10 million dollars was spent a year in the developing countries on high cost technology to improve services to people who already had water and sanitation, mainly cities, so only a fraction of the remaining 20% went to low-cost appropriate technology for the undeserved majority of people in the rural and peri-urban areas(UNICEF,1993).  A further inequity is that people in the cities are rarely charged for the installation and maintenance of service while rural communities are often expected to pay as much as 75% of costs of establishing water units. Such strategies have yielded little dividends especially in Bauchi –Nigeria.

                       

            If progress rates of the 1980s for Water and Sanitation are merely continued at the same pace, as the case has been then worse times lies ahead.  The strategies employed in the past have simply become unsustainable and the pattern of Services that cost US 10 million dollars in 1980s will probably cost about US 35 million dollars by the mid 1990s and probably outrageous in the millennium.  Meeting the basic needs of the world’s poorest nations through community – focused actions attuned to the local environment could be the best panacea for achieving Sustainable development.

High cost of water treatment makes potable water expensive.  This situation is stigmatizing in that most people in the developing Countries can not boast of 25 liters of clean water a day on the average.  Due to poor Town planning, over population, over crowding, Septic tanks are cited close to wells, as well as refuse dumps – these are all potential health risks. Besides, waterborne microorganisms are becoming resistant to chlorine such as: Cryptosporidcum cysts, Aeromonas Salmonicida, A. hydrophila, Legionella Pneumophila, Escherichia coli 0157:47 etc.  These organisms amongst others, Rotavirus etc are of public health concerns.

 

Preventing contamination of drinking water requires a multidisciplinary view, one that incorporates elements of microbiology, chemistry, physics, engineering and managers as well as the explorations of nature’s potentials.

 

Fortunately, the flora of Africa is rich with a lot of medicinal plants and Macro fungi which people in the rural areas are quite familiar with and have been using them since time immemorial.  Sofowora (1982) reported that Africa has as much as 300,00 medicinal plants while Chang (1993) reported that the world mushroom biodiversity is as much as 1.5 million species.  There is, therefore, an urgent need to explore and utilize these rich biodiversity through researches that could translate to direct benefit to mankind.  These medicinal plants and Mushroom Sclerotium could provide useful lead for the synthesis of natural coagulants.  This may be more environment friendly, easy to handle by our rural people and comparatively less toxic than the use of chlorine which is known to produce carcinogenic tetrahalomethane compounds.

 

The ultimate goal of this work was to carry out an and in vitro evaluation of some medicinal plants and mushroom sclerotium in water and waste water purification in Bauchi –Nigeria

 

 

Plants and Mushroom sclerotium selected for study.

 

1.         Moringa oleifera (Zogale in Hausa)

Picture 1: Moringa oleifera (Zogale in Hausa) identified in most of the

communities and can be used for community water purification.

 

           

It has been reported that the seeds of common vegetable plant – Moringa oleifera found in many areas of Northern Nigeria to purify water.  In Malawi, it was observed that muddy water mixed with powdered Moringa seeds resulted in purified water after an hour just as if it had been filtered with a chemical substance like the common water coagulant, Aluminum sulphate (Alum).

 

Moringa oleifera tree is a native of Northern India, which is now grown widely through the tropics.  It is sometimes known as drumstick (because of the shape of the pods) and horseradish – describing the taste of its roots.

 

 

 

Moringa grows rapidly from seed or cutting,and does well  even in poor soils.  A number of trado-medical uses of Moringa have been reported.  Oliver (1959) reported that in Mauritius the seed extracts have been used as an antihelminths, treatment of liver disorder as well as its oils applied for rheumatic pains. Similarly, exudates from the bark of the tree (which is gum-like) have been used in the treatment of diarrhea.  The leaves and flowers of the plant contain pterygospermin –an unstable compound with low Melting point and which readily decompose to benzyl lisothiocyanate  (Oliver 1959).  Pterygospermin showed antibacterial activity against both gram positive and gram negative organisms (Sofowora, 1982). Oliver (1959) also reported that the bark of Moringa oleifera contains two alkaloids- Moringine and Moringinine.

 

Considering this information, it was of great interest to work towards exploiting the inherent potentials of this plant in local water purification as well as for other phytopharmaceuticals. The need to investigate thoroughly its antimicrobial activity on Coliforms, E.Coli and other faecal indicators like Streptococcus faecalis and Clostridium welchi is imperative.

 

 

2. Jatropha curcas (Physic nut seeds).

 

This is a common plant in west and central Africa.

 

It produces whitish latex, which rural people in Western Cameroon have use as a hemostat to stop bleeding.  The leaves and seeds as well as the roots are highly medicinal (Personal communication). The seeds contain up to 35% oil and  the plant has been used in some parts of Nigeria to control erosion.  The seeds of this plants have not been fully utilized, so a hypothesis was drawn that the seeds may possess coagulative properties.

 

 

 

3. Hibiscus Sabdariffa (Rosette flower).

 

This plant is widely cultivated in Northern Nigeria and well consumed as a beverage called in Hausa  “Zobo” The calyx extract is reddish in colour and has been used by traditionalist to manage hypertension.  Similarly, the seeds have been used as a dewormer in animals (Personal Communication).  There is a need to investigate the coagulative and disinfective ability of the dried powdered calyx.

 

 

 

 

 

 

4. Sclerotium of Pleurotus tuberregium

 

Picture 3 Pleurotus tuberregium fruiting on the Sclerotium

Picture 4 Children at Bai – Bikom, Kumba in the South West part of Cameroon hunting for wild Pleurotus and Sclerotium for sale and for food.

 

 

.

Pleurotus tuberregium grows commonly in the South West Province of Cameroon and in the Eastern and Southern parts of Nigeria.  Reports abound to show that Mushrooms possess medicinal valued but no report shows that they contain coagulative and disinfective potential.

 

Materials and Methods.

Water samples were collected from obviously turbid and contaminated Sources  in yelwa , Bauchi town.  Dirty water flowing in Gutters around Yelwa – a peri – urban settlement in Bauchi town Nigeria, Yelwa stream, kitchen sink samples as well as septic tank outflows.  The appearance/cloudiness of these water samples were noted by visual observation.  Similarly, the PH was taken using a test strip ( combi 9 test strip) The Escherichia coli, coliforms ands Total aerrobic Mesophilic bacterial counts were enumerated on Eosin Methylene blue, Mac Conkey and Nutrient agars respectively after a milliliter of the turbid water samples were aseptically diluted serially up to three fold. This was done according to method of APHA (1983) and Cheesbrough (1984) were adopted.  All these were done before the coagulation test and as well as after Treatment.  Seeds of Moringa oleifera, Jatropha curcas, calyx of Hibiscus sabdarifa and Sclerotium of Pleurotus tuberregium were previously obtained dried, then pulverized Separately using a clean pestle and mortar and stored in brown envelopes ready for the test.

Graded weights (0.59 to 59) of the pulverized plant materials and Alum were each added to 200 mls of the wastewater samples in beakers. Increased weight s(g) from 0.5 to 5.0 g of each of the plant material was mixed in a small quantity of the turbid water to form a paste and then mixed finally with the water samples in the beakers. The same procedure was done for Alum and a turbid water sample in a beaker (200mls was allowed to stand in a beaker for 24 hours as control.  The coagulative effect and change in bacterial counts were recorded.

A cold Methanol extraction was then carried out on 50 grams each of the powders 50 grams of each of the powders was steeped in 250 ml of methanol for 24 hours Gravity filtration was carried out using what man filter paper N0.13 and solvent evaporated at nom temperature.  100 mg of each of the extract was suspended in 1 ml of distilled water.

The extracts were now tested for their in vitro antibacterial activity using the Agar diffusion Method using Escherichia coli, previously isolated from the turbid water.  The choice of E coli is because Ecoli is an important indicator of faecal contamination of water.  100 mg of Alum was also tested against E coli as control.  The whole set up was incubated at 370C for 24 hours and the diameter zone of inhibition was  recorded in plus (+) notation.

 

 

Table: 1          Physical nature and microbial content of wastewater samples from

           yelwa,   Bauchi before treatment with Alum and Plant materials.

 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------                                                                                                     

Type of waste               Physical            Total aerobic                  Coli form             Escherichia 

Water sample               appearance       Mesophilic bacterial        Counts               Coli Counts

                                                            Counts (Cfulml )             Cfulml                 Cfulml

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dirty water                   Very dirty                     TNTC              TNTC                   TNTC 

Stagnant in                    and highly

Gutters                         turbid with a

                                    Lot of suspended

                                    Matter

 

Dirty, heavily                Very turbid                   600000            37, 800                19,800

Polluted stream appearing brownish

At Yelwa, Bauchi

 

Kitchen sink                 Dirty, Cloudy                545000            29,870                2540

Samples from               and appearing

Yelwa                          very turbid

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Key:     CFU----- Colony forming  unit per ml, TNTC ------ Too Numerous to count.

 

 

 

Table  2.          Coagulative and disinfective effect of moringa oleifera seeds and

 Alum on waste water.

 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Type of waste               Physical appearance     Treatment with        Treatment with Moringa

Water sample                                                   Alum (Aluminium    Olecfera seeds (5g)           

                                                                        Sulphate) (5g)

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Dirty water,                  Very Dirty,                   Flocs settled                  Flocs formed and

 Settled when directly

Stagnant in                    Very turbid                   Clear supernatant          dispersed in water.

Gutters                         with a lot of                  Ec= 2,050 cfulml          Flocs settled slowly.

                                    Suspended particles      Cf= 3982 cfulml           Well settled when

                                                                        TBC =8000 cfulml        held in muslin cloth.

                                                                                                             Supernatant clear

                                                                                                             Ec= 900 cfulml

                                                                                                             Cf =2,450 cfulml

                                                                                                            TBC= 2,700 Cfulml

 

Dirty heavily                 Very turbid                   Flocs formed +             Flocs well settled

Polluted stream brownish                      settled                          when held in muslin

At Yelwa, Bauchi                                             Ec= 1825 Cfulml          sack cloth, clear

                                                                        Cf=29930 cfulml          supernatant.

                                                                        TBC= 569000 Cfulml   Ec= 1920 Cfulml

                                                                                                            CF= 4230 Cfulml

                                                                                                            TBC= 60,000 Cfulml

 

Kitchen Sink                 Dirty, Cloudy                Flocs settled                 Flocs settled.

Samples from               + Turbid.                      Ec: 2498 Cfulml            Supernatant clear

Yelwa                                                              Cf: 20896 Cfulml          Ec: 254 Cfulm

                                                                        TBC: 99,514 Cfulm      Cf: 2987Cfulml

                                                                                                            TBC: 49,000 Cfulml

 

Table  3           Coagulative  and  disinfective effects of Jatropha Curcas seeds,

PleurotusTuberregium sclerotium, Hibiscus sabdarifa calyx and

Alum on waste water.

 

 

Type  of            Physical            Alum                Treatment         Treatment           Treatment

Waste water     appearance       Treatment         with Jatropha    with Pleurotus  withHibiscus

             Tuberregium    Sabdarifacalyx

 Sample                                                (control)            Curcas seeds      Sclerotium

 

 

Dirty water            Dirty, Very             Flocs settled         Flocs formed         Flocs formed         Flocs formed

Stagnant in            turbid with             Clear                        and Settle,            Slowly                    settled slowly,

Gutters                   Suspended            Supernatant          Clear                       Settled                    Red pigment

                                Particle                   Ec: 2,050                 Supernatant          Supernatant          extracts, Clear

                                                                Cfulml                     Ec: 1252  Clear       supernatant

                                                                                                Cfulml                     Ec:2353  Ec:1253cfulml

                                                                CF: 3982 Cf: 3450  cfulml                                CF: 2870cfu/ml

Cfulml                     Cf: 3800  cfulml

                                                                Cfulml                     TBC: 7,200                                               TBC: 41030

                                                                TBC: 8000              Cfulml                     TBC:7870                 Cfulml

                                                                Cfulml                                                     Cfulml

 

 

Dirty heavily         Very turbid            Flocs settled         Flocs settled         Flocs slowly          Flocs formed

Polluted Brownish                           Very clear                  Clear                       Settled, Clear         Slowly settled

Stream at                                                Supernatant          Supernatant          Supernatant          red pigment

Yelwa, Bauchi                                       Ec: 18250                EC:4950              EC: 15530                       Colour

 observed

                                                                Cfulml                     CF:7560  Cfulml                                  Ec:2505

                                                                CF: 29930               TBC: 140,000         CF: 3,030                cfulml

                                                                Cfulml                                                     TBC: 209,000         Cf: 3,225

                                                                TBC: 569000                                          cfulml                     cfulml

                                                                Cfulml                                                                                     TBC: 49750

                                                                                                                                                                Cfulml

 

Kitchen sink          Dirty,                      Flocs settled,        Flocs formed         flocs formed          flocs formed E

Sample from          Cloudy E                Supernatant          + settled,                +!settled,               Settled slowly.

Yelwa                     turbid                     Ec: 2498 clear                        Clear

Cfulml                     supernant              Supernatant     Supernantant

CF: 27896               EC:970cfulml         EC:2,450C       but Red

  pigment

Cfulml                     CF:3300 cfulml  CF:39000C    EC:320

TBC:507000           TBC: 93000cfulml  TBC:        cfulml

       423000             CF: 1997

 

cfulml                                                                                     cfulml

                                                                                                TBC:37850

                                                                                                cfumlm

                                                                                                                                key: EC= Escherichia coli, cf—coliform, TBC__Total aerobic mesophilic bacterial count.

 

 

Table: 4

Preliminary Antibacterial acttivity of methanol Extracts of plants and Alum on Escherichia coli isolated from waste water samples.

 

 

 

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

 Extracts Alum (100mglml)                                            Sensitivity on E Coli

 

Methanol Extract of Moringa

Oleifera seeds                                                                           ++

 

Methanol Extract of seed of

Jatropha curcas                                                                        +

 

Methanol Extracts of calyx

Of Hibiscus subdariffa                                                   ++

 

Methanol Extracts of Sclerotium of

Pleurotus tuberregium                                                               _

 

Alum (Aluminium Sulphate)                                                       _

 

 

 

+------- sensitive    ++ Very sensitive

- ------ Not sensitive

 

 

Results and Discussion.

 

The Result of the physical nature and Microbial content of wastewater samples from Yelwa, Bauchi before Treatment with Alum and plant materials is presented in Table I.  The Total aerobic Mesophilic bacterial counts, Escherichia coli counts as well as coliform counts were generally high, especially in stagnant, dirty water collected from Gutters where Microbial counts were to Numerous to count.  Wastewater in Yelwa –peri urban slum in Bauchi is not properly disposed. The settlement is poorly planned and with very unhygienic surroundings.  This wastewater possibly percolates and contaminates wells, which are closely cited.  The results in Table I served as untreated control all through the experiment.  The PH of the wastewater samples was 7.0 using a urinary test trip – Combi 9 test trip while the turbidity.  Which was assessed subjectively using visual observation was noted to be highly turbid with terrible odour for all the samples.

 

Table 2 shows the result of the coagulative and disinfective effect of Moringa oleifera seeds on wastewater in comparison with Alum.

The findings indicated that Moringa oleifera seeds coagulated well about 90% of the particles in the samples leading to a clear supernatant.  The coagulation effect was far better in heavily polluted water than in less polluted water.  Unlike with Alum, floc settlement in Moringa treated samples was slower when the seeds were directly dispersed into the water but when the seeds were packed in to a muslin sackcloth and dipped into the samples, floc Settlement was faster and was as good as with Alum. The coagulative effect of Moringa Seeds was even better than with Alum and this can be explained with the fact that Moringa oleifera seeds exhibited strong antimicrobial activity.  For instance, the raw untreated stagnant water from the Gutters had an initial Total bacterial counts Too Numerous to count, which reduced to only 2700 colony forming units per ml when treated with Moringa Seeds as opposed to 8000 colony forming units when treated with Alum. Alum exhibited exhibited a minimal effect on bacterial load of the samples.  This may be due to the fact that some bacteria attach to the surface of particles that eventually settles with them.  To further prove this point, a 100 mgl ml of Alum was tested on E. coli isolated from the waste water samples and no inhibition was noticed.  Meanwhile a 100 mglml of (bulk) methanol extract of Moringa oleifera seeds when tested showed an appreciable inhibition on the same E. coli.  These result are shown in Table 4.

The coagulative property of Moringa seeds could be attributed to a polymeric coagulatant earlier reported by Eilert et al (1978).  The works of Eilert also supports the antibacterial activity of Moringa oleifera, while Umar Dahot M. (1998) reported the antibacterial action of small protein/peptide against,Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Klebsiella pneumoniae, staph aureus and Bacillus substilis.  The observations in this study Corroborates these earlier observations in that Moringa oleifera seeds reduced the total aerobic Mesophilic counts drastically and the bacterial isolates listed in their studies are actually aerobic mesophilic bacteria.

 

The results of the coagulative and disinfective effects of Jatropha curcas seeds (Physic nut), Pleurotus tuberregium Sclerotium, Hibiscus Sabdarifa calyx and Alum on wastewater samples is shown in Table 3.

The results generally show that the plant materials possess some coagulative effect while Jatropha curcas seeds and calyx of Hibiscus Sabdarifa possess both coagulative and disinfective ability.  Generally in the experiment, the weight of the plant materials and Alum were varied from 0.5g to 5g per 200 ml wastewater samples.  Best coagulative effect was noted when 4 to 5 gram plant powders were used and as a result of this, the result of the experiment was reported using 5 grams.

 

When compared to the untreated wastewater samples, all the plant materials are between 60-90% effective in purifying the water samples.  The coagulative effect of the Mushroom sclerotium of Pleurotus tuberregium was the least of all the plant materials but as effective as Alum.  The mild effect on the bacterial load of the waste water can be seen in the fact that Extracts of Pleurotus tuberregium do not possess any antibacterial activity (Table 4 ).  The mild reduction of bacterial load is possibly due to the fact that settled particles in water do have organisms attached to their surfaces.  This effect is possibly the case with Alum.

 

           The Mushroom sclerotium powders coagulated the particles better when placed in muslin sackcloth.  This was generally observed for all the plant materials and this is because pulverized plant materials had very small particles that remained in colloidal form.  The use of Sclerotium of the Mushroom Pleurotus tuberregium to purify wastewater is a significant observation that has not been reported elsewhere.  Pleurotus tuberregium is an edible mushroom widely found in South and Eastern Nigeria and South Western Cameroon and is a wild mushroom.  The sclerotium, which is a dormant stage of the mushroom, can lie in the ground for years and during which it fruits repeatedly at the onset of the rains.  In Igbo land in Nigeria as well as in the Bayangi and Bakweri clans in Cameroon the pulverized sclerotium is used in the preparation of a soup delicacy that is well valued by notables in these societies.

 

           The seeds of Jatropha curcas exhibited a stronger coagulative as well as disinfective effect than Alum.  (Tables 3 and 4) but when compared to Moringa oleifera is about 60- 80%while Moringa was above 90 percent.  Jatropha curcas is a very common plant with a number of medicinal uses.  The root extracts have been used in the treatment of sexually transmitted diseases while the leaf latex has been used as a hemostat.  ( Persmal Communication ),  The use of the powders of the calyx of Hibiscus sabdarifa has shown both coagulative as well as disinfective effect.  It reduced total aerobic bacterial counts E. coli and coliform counts better than Alum but the only set back is the fact that the red pigment extracts in the water leaving the water colored.  The methanol extract of Hibiscus sabdarifa calyx showed an excellent antibacterial activity (Table 4).  The calyx extract of Hibiscus sabdarifa has been widely used as a local beverage in Northern Nigeria.

 

          Generally, the turbidity of the water samples reduced drastically after treatment with all the plant materials Alum decreased PH of the waste water samples generally from 7.0 to 5 while with the plant materials PH of treated and untreated water samples remained at 7.0 using Combi 9 test strip.

 

           It must be remarked in this study that the use of Moringa oleifera seeds as a water coagulant is gaining wide attention.  The use of the plant in the treatment of domestic drinking water has been known in Malawi where 2 grams of the crushed seeds has been used to treat 20 liters of water but the use of other plants especially those specified in this study have not been known nor reported elsewhere.

 

           This study has conclusively indicated that wastewater can be treated considerably with the use of plant materials.  The positive effect of the plant materials on indicator organisms (E. coli and coliforms ) means reduction in the level of faecal pollution in the environment.  The need to exploit the potential of plants may offer cheap, and environment friendly methods of tackling water contamination and May possibly overcome the hazards of using chlorine.There are a number of aspects currently underway.

 

 Reference.

Eilert, U (1978) Antibiotic Principles of seeds of Moringa oleifera.  Indian Medical

Journal 38 (235) 1013 – 1016.

M. Umar Dahot (1998) Antimicrobial Activity of Small Protein of Moringa Oleifera

leaves. Journal of Islamic Academy of science, Vol. 11 No. 1.

APHA (1983) American Public Health Association Standard method for the

Examination of water and wastewater 15th Edition.

Burns, N. M., and Van Otterloo, H. R (1974) Standard Method for Examination of

water and waste water in American Public Health Association.

Harrigan, W. F. and Mccance, M.F. (1976) Lab methods in Food and dairy

Microbiology.  Academic press, London, pp 228.

Cheesbrough, M (1984) Medical Laboratory Manual for Tropical Countries,

Tropical Health Technology Butterworth, pp 1 – 15.

Oliver, B. (1959) Medicinal Plants in Nigeria, college of Arts, Science and

Technology. Ibadan. P 27.

Personal communication with some rural people on use of medicinal/Plants.

Personal comm. UNICEF Official, water NGOS in Bauchi.

Chang (1993) Mushroom Biology:  The impact of Mushroom Production and

Mushroom Products.  In: Mushroom Biology and Mushroom Products

(E.D) Chang S. T., Buswell, J.A. and Chiu, S.W. The Chinese University

Press Hong Kong. Pp 3 –20

Sofowora, E.A (1982) Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa. Wiley,

New York, pp 142 – 145.

UNICEF(1993) Control of diarrhoeal diseases(CDD) adapted from facts of life, watsan Health Education unit ,2nd Edition.Edproprint, Lagos.

 

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